“Nationalism’s reign: Coal reflects the West’s failure in India.” | (‘राष्ट्रवाद का साम्राज्य, कोयला 20वीं सदी का दर्पण है – भारत में, यह पश्चिम की विफलता को दर्शाता है’ | भारत समाचार )

Main Points In Hindi (मुख्य बातें – हिंदी में)

यहां मैथ्यू शट्ज़र के शोध और उनके दृष्टिकोण के मुख्य बिंदु प्रस्तुत हैं:

1. कोयले का ऐतिहासिक संदर्भ: मैथ्यू शट्ज़र ने बताया कि कोयले का प्रयोग औपनिवेशिक काल से पहले भी दक्षिण एशिया में एक महत्वपूर्ण संसाधन रहा है, लेकिन औपनिवेशिक युग में इसका उपयोग और तीव्रता में वृद्धि हुई। ईस्ट इंडिया कंपनी की गतिविधियां कोयले के व्यावसायिककरण की दिशा में महत्वपूर्ण थीं।

2. औपनिवेशिककालीन समृद्धि: औपनिवेशिक काल में भारत के कोयले का उपयोग मुख्य रूप से रेलवे और भाप के जहाजों को ईंधन देने के लिए किया गया, जिससे ब्रिटिश और भारतीय व्यापारियों को समृद्धि मिली। कोयले ने कृषि वस्तुओं और श्रम को शहरों के बीच परिवहन में भी महत्वपूर्ण भूमिका निभाई।

3. राष्ट्रीय संप्रभुता और जीवाश्म ईंधन: भारत की स्वतंत्रता के बाद, जीवाश्म ईंधन को राष्ट्रीयता का एक प्रतीक माना गया, जिसका उपयोग विकास और आर्थिक स्वतंत्रता के लिए किया गया। भारतीय राज्य ने कोयले पर नियंत्रण के लिए नीतियों का निर्माण किया, लेकिन जमींदारी और पूंजीवादी खनन कंपनियों की विरासत के कारण इसे स्थापित करने में चुनौतियों का सामना करना पड़ा।

4. पर्यावरणीय प्रभाव: शट्ज़र ने उल्लेख किया कि कोयला खनन ने दीर्घकालिक पर्यावरणीय प्रभावों को जन्म दिया, जैसे झरिया में लगातार जलती हुई खदानें। यह पर्यावरणीय विनाश और खनन समुदायों की उपेक्षा को दर्शाता है।

5. वैश्विक संदर्भ: शट्ज़र ने पश्चिमी देशों की जीवाश्म ईंधन पर निर्भरता के ऐतिहासिक संदर्भ के साथ भारत की स्थिति की तुलना की। उन्होंने कहा कि भारत के विकास के लिए आवश्यक जीवाश्म ईंधन का प्रयोग एक वैश्विक आर्थिक संदर्भ की कमी को दर्शाता है, जिसमें धनी देशों का नेतृत्व और जिम्मेदारी की कमी है।

Main Points In English(मुख्य बातें – अंग्रेज़ी में)

Here are the main points derived from the discussion with Matthew Shutzer, an environmental historian at the University of California, Berkeley:

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1. Focus on Fossil Fuels in India: Matthew Shutzer is completing a book on the fossil fuel economy of India from the 19th century to the 1980s, examining how environmental, social, and economic changes led to the dependency on fossil fuels during colonial and post-colonial periods.

2. Colonial Exploitation of Coal: The colonial era saw a significant shift in coal utilization, particularly with the onset of the East India Company in the late 18th century. The expansion of coal usage was driven by European and Indian traders, particularly with the arrival of railways in the 1850s, which increased demand for coal to fuel transportation and agricultural goods.

3. Post-Colonial Sovereignty and Control: After independence, the Indian state sought to reclaim sovereignty over fossil fuels as a source of economic freedom and national development. This involved struggles against land claims by local landowners and capitalist mining companies, leading to challenges in asserting control over valuable coal-rich areas.

4. Environmental Impact of Mining: The historical impact of coal mining includes significant environmental degradation, exemplified by persistent coal fires in regions like Jharia, which began in the early 20th century and highlight the long-term costs of dependency on fossil fuels. These incidents reflect not only ecological damage but also the neglect of mining communities.

5. International Context of Fossil Fuel Use: Shutzer argues that India’s reliance on fossil fuels is partly a result of historical injustices, with developed countries having used fossil fuels for economic growth while expecting others to transition away from them. He emphasizes the need for accountability from wealthier nations in addressing environmental crises stemming from fossil fuel dependency.

Complete News In Hindi(पूरी खबर – हिंदी में)

Complete News In English(पूरी खबर – अंग्रेज़ी में)

Matthew Shutzer teaches history at the University of California, Berkeley. He spoke with Shrijana Mitra Das for Times Evoke, discussing coal in India:

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What is the essence of your research?

• I am an environmental historian currently completing a book on India’s fossil fuel economy from the 19th century to the 1980s. I study how environmental, social, and economic changes led to coal dependence in South Asia during both colonial and post-colonial periods. My research also examines how fossil fuels became not just an energy source but also a means of social and political competition, particularly focusing on land issues in coal-affected areas, mainly in central and eastern India.

Is there a pre-colonial history of coal?

• Yes, mining and metallurgy have a long history in South Asia, concerning knowledge, hereditary professions, wealth, coin minting, and sovereignty linked to subsurface resources. Pre-colonial oil use, primarily documented for veterinary, boat caulking, and manuscript preservation purposes, was common. However, colonialism transformed the scale and intensity of coal use, starting with the East India Company in the late 18th century.

How was coal utilized during the colonial era, and who benefitted from it?

• The story of colonial extraction unfolded in stages, beginning in the late 18th century when the East India Company attempted to claim coal in Burdwan, Bengal, though without much financial backing. Coal exploration and capitalization began post-1810, led by European and Indian traders in Kolkata, with Dwarkanath Tagore playing a central role in the 19th-century energy landscape. Initially, the colonial state had limited interest in India’s coal, primarily using it to fuel British steam ships. The arrival of railways in the 1850s significantly advanced coal usage, unlocking substantial public funding for extraction.

Notably, while coal-based industrialization in Britain shifted human labor to machines, in India, coal was essential for fueling railways and transporting agricultural goods and labor to port cities. Thus, coal early on contributed to the wealth of European and Indian traders, later intertwining with European-managed agencies and the British colonial state.

What role did coal play in the end of colonialism?

• There are two aspects regarding sovereignty. Fossil fuels were central to post-colonial ideas of economic independence and national development, seen not only as energy sources but also as inherited national wealth unjustly taken by the empire. Between 1947 and 1951, the Indian state extensively developed policies for state control over fossil fuels. However, it faced the reality that valuable coal-rich lands were claimed by Indian landlords, especially those from areas with permanent settlement laws. To assert sovereignty over underground resources, particularly coal, the state had to confront both capitalistic mining companies and the legacy of feudalism, leading to conflicts with these social forces. Nevertheless, the state’s efforts were only partially successful, partly due to existing property rights and struggles related to land reforms in the 1950s.

The narrative of petroleum differs, as the Indian state aimed to extend its economic sovereignty not downward into societal realms but outward within the global economy dominated by petroleum companies. By the mid-20th century, British firms controlled nearly all petroleum resources in South Asia, leading the Indian state to establish a state capitalist mechanism—the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC)—under bureaucrat KD Malaviya, which aimed to nationalize British oil properties and create a state-owned oil economy linked to national sovereignty and socialism.

Can you elaborate on your study of water shaping the mining town of Dhanbad?

• It’s no coincidence that the eastern Chotanagpur plateau, which became coal-affected areas like Dhanbad, Jharia, and Raniganj, is also a river valley. This region focused on controlling energy flows, which meant not just coal but also water and labor. I specifically highlight urbanization within Dhanbad during the inter-war period, marked by significant coal expansion. The rapid growth around coalfields created mining settlements where laborers, many from agricultural backgrounds, were sent into coal work. This concentration of people led to public health issues, including cholera outbreaks caused by contaminated water.

Mining companies and landlords collaborated to control water supply, establishing municipal authorities like the Jharia Water Board to regulate water flow from the flood-prone areas of West Bengal. This laid the groundwork for the urban geography of Dhanbad and Jharia. The same model is seen with the establishment of the Damodar Valley Corporation in the 1930s, which managed water resources.

What are the most significant environmental impacts of this extraction economy?

• One example I discuss is the mining fires in Jharia, which emerged as a specific kind of historical evidence showing long-term environmental consequences. These fires, which began in the early 20th century, still persist today, despite the Modi government making strides to contain them. Their ongoing presence highlights the ecological costs of fossil fuel dependence. These fires result from destructive mining practices by both European and Indian firms and indicate the neglect of mining communities and ecosystems.

Today, you can see cracks in the soil where smoke and heat rise, abandoned mines with remnants, and people scavenging for coal in officially closed mines to sell on the black market. These events reflect the long-term impact of the 20th century and illustrate how environmental destruction is not only about landscapes and resources but also deeply affects human lives.

Western criticism of India’s coal usage points to its own history and argues it’s necessary for India’s development. How do you view this situation?

• The reliance on fossil fuels was part of a global imperial project. If we assume that its extraction had not happened by the 1970s, India’s claims for historical justice are valid—countries in the U.S. and EU took 150 years to develop based on fossil fuels. Today, continued reliance does not imply that the Indian government uniquely reveres coal; it results from the absence of international shifts allowing a global transition away from fossil fuels, similar to past movements toward them.

I see this as a failure of the international context rather than an issue of India alone. The intense use of fossil fuels in India is indeed leading to significant environmental destruction and uneven development, but within the context of historical justice, it’s essential to understand the broader responsibilities of the West in perpetuating this crisis. The recent COP29 summit serves as evidence of a lack of fundamental leadership from wealthier nations, causing catastrophic implications for the future of our planet.

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